La Tanya Robinson -History of Adult Education 1930's

 

History of Adult/Community Education 1930’s

Your Name	Commented On
La Tanya Robinson	Jayne Rohlfing, Claire Aldenhuysen, Ashten Lail, Josie Campbell

 

The Great Depression (1929 – 1939) affected many American families, from upper-middle class professionals to the middle and working class families.  The lower class families were already struggling to make ends meet and the Great Depression didn’t make it any better.  This period of time, which reflected the worse economic downturn, was the worse in modern day history (History.com Editors, 2009).  The daily lives of American families changed significantly. The cause of the Great Depression is contributed to the stock market crashed that occurred on October 24, 1929, known as “Black Thursday” and October 29, 1929, known as “Black Tuesday” (History.com Editors, 2009). This economic game changer affected the American people confidence in a negative way.  There was a drastic decrease in American’s spending and investing, thus causing factories and businesses to decrease production, which ultimately resulted in laying off their workers.   By 1930, 4 million Americans were unemployed and by 1933, 15 million Americans were looking for work and just about half of the country’s banks were closed (History.com Editors, 2009).  Unemployment was high especially among minorities, by 1932 approximately half of African Americans were out of work (US History.org, 2020). The economy was suffering and people were seeking and needing relief from this life changing situation. These were challenging times, but Americans were finding ways to come together to help one another.  Potlucks and thirsty gardens became a means for food sharing with one another, thus helping families cut back on their food budget (Konkel, 2018). Women began leaving their homemaker duties behind and started seeking opportunities in the workforce.  Some people frowned upon this because they felt the working woman was or had taken a job away from a man, but giving the circumstances it was inevitable and would eventually become the norm.  The economic change in America would eventually have a dramatic effect on the education system.

The effects of the Great Depression adversely affected the education system.  People could no longer pay their property taxes, which affected the funding for public schools.  Property taxes were the main funding source for public school (Encyclopedia.com Editors, 2020). School districts could no longer cover teacher salaries and administration costs (Lynch, 2016), therefore, the academic year was shortened or schools were closed.  Almost 20,000 schools nationwide had closed by the beginning of 1934 (Lynch, 2016).  Some districts struggled to pay their teachers, using promissory notes as a means of payment.  This form of payment created a reduction in teachers and an increase in class size.  Schools that stayed open were faced with closing classes and programs that fell under progression education.  These particular classes and programs, which were sometimes called “fads and frills”, included adult education, night school, vocational classes, home economics, summer schools, physical education, kindergartens, health services and the arts. (Encyclopedia.com Editors, 2020). It was believed that the traditional core subjects cost less to teach, therefore, the progression education classes and programs were eliminated. The financial and academic suffering would be a historical memory for the American people.

Unemployment was high and began to disrupt the lives of the American people.  People began committing petty theft to put food on the table, thus causing the crime rate to rapidly rise.  At one point the suicide rate had increased because people were depressed.  Alcoholism was prevalent because people began drinking alcohol to deal with the anxiety of everyday life.  More women turned to prostitution as a way to pay their bills.  Husbands were abandoning their wives and families using the “poor man’s divorce” option as their justification. (US History.org, 2020) People were fleeing from their homes, hitching train rides to seek opportunity elsewhere.  There were over 600,000 people hitching train rides during the Great Depression (US History.org, 2020).  The Great Depression was changing the lives of the American people.

Adult/community education took a hard hit during the Depression-era, but it still remained a resource for people to use to get through tough times.   During World War I there was a great need for highly trained mechanics, technicians, radio operators, and trained crafts personnel for the production of equipment and supplies.  To meet this need, the Federal Board for Vocational Education began establishing classes and training men prior to being inducted into the service. (Gordon, 2014).  Eventually, civilians were being educated and trained in industrialization production.  Military and civilian production jobs continue to be in demand until the 1929 economic crash, which resulted in the Great Depression.  Vocational education took a hard hit and the industrial activity decreased tremendously.  However, it wouldn’t be long before the need for vocation education would surface again.  World War II demanded effective training for military personnel, as well as, civilian employees in such jobs as welding, aircraft mechanics, radio, electrical and machine skills, and riveting. (Gordon, 2014)

Besides industrialization, adult/community education was used to educate Depression-era homemakers.  Times were hard and families needed help with providing the basic needs for their families.  Home economic classes were offered to teach homemakers life skills that could be used in the home.  Women’s magazines and radio shows taught homemakers how to stretch their food budget by making casseroles and one-pot meals (Konkel 2018).  Churches organized potlucks to bring people together to share food, information and socialize.  Families strive to be self-sufficient by learning how to keep small kitchen gardens and communities were taught how to develop thrift gardens.  The Depression-era was a challenging time but it did bring some families and communities together.

Another form of adult/community education used during the decade of the 1930’s was protests and movements. There was a growth in African American activism during the earliest days of the Great Depression.  African Americans began uniting together to protest for greater economic, social and political rights. (Klein, 2018).  Boycotts were organized to fight racially discriminatory hiring practices against companies that refused to hire African Americans. Organized meetings and gatherings were used to disseminate information to boycott participates and the African American community as a whole. The slogan “Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” was used for boycotts and pickets throughout the North. (Klein, 2018).  African Americans began forming organizations to develop movements for communities that would eventually filter over into other states throughout the country.  Movements to fight for anti-lynching legislation, the elimination of the poll tax and the eligibility of agricultural and domestic workers Social Security was occurring throughout the 1930’s.  The growth of African American protests and movements presage the Civil Rights Movement.

There were other movements occurring throughout this era that wasn’t directly connected to just African Americans.  Throughout the south people were fighting for justice.  There were labor movements and labor unions being organized to fight for labor justice.   Unemployed and working people were being united, while leaders and organizers were being trained for the movement.  There were strikes organized to protest low pay and unsafe working conditions.   The movements, boycotts, protests and strikes that occurred during the 1930’s era would not have occurred, whether successful or not, without information being taught and shared among the participates. 

During the 1930’s there were organizations and programs that influenced adult/community education.  President Franklin Roosevelt implemented a relief and reform plan, New Deal, to help with the recovery from the Great Depression (Lynch 2016).  He created two organizations that assisted in the work relief programs, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the National Youth Administration (NYA).  Both programs were responsible for assisting the needy, people out of school and needy high school and/or college students with some type of employment.  It wasn’t long before CCC and NYA realized that its participants were deficient in basic skills and vocational skills.  This realization is what led the federal government, for the first time in history, to offer education courses in basic skills (Lynch, 2016).  Another program, Works Progress Administration (WPA) was responsible for employing teachers and getting them involved in adult education.  This program combined with another program, Public Works Administration, educated approximately 1.5 million adults, during 1933 and 1938. (Lynch, 2016).  Organizations, such as, the National Council of Negro Women, National Negro Congress and the Southern Negro Youth Congress were often known for educating and organizing boycotts and movements. 

Organizations and programs were not the only influential factor for adult/community education.  Schools, such as folk schools and labor colleges were contributors to the shaping and forming of adult/community education.  Highlander, a folk school founded by Myles Horton, was known for educating and training leaders and organizers of labor movements and social justice movements. (Carey, 2013).  Labor colleges were schools that also specialized in labor organization, as well as, instruction for adult industrial workers.  Both types of schools were an integral part in adult/community education.

Adult/community education has always played a major role in shaping and molding America.  Whether it was dealing with building this great country using industrialization or changing the mindset of people for social justice, adult/community education was an integral part of it all. The need for trained skilled workers is as prevalent today as it was in the 1930’s.  The Trades industry is in high demand for skilled workers, approximately 1 million jobs are being projected for the State of Indiana by 2025.  This high demand for skilled workers is throughout the United States.  We, America, were not vocationally prepared in the past and if we don’t start educating and training now, we won’t be vocationally prepared for the future.  This preparation should not be left up to the State and Federal Government to figure out.  The local government and local communities must be a part of the preparation team.  Community leaders must get involve to educate and bring awareness about the opportunities in the Trades industry, as well as, work with local Trade Unions and Career Centers to offer courses, programs and training in the specialized skills.  Hopefully, we won’t make the same mistake as we did in the past and began addressing this vocational need early by expanding and increasing the number of adult/community classes and program offerings.

The 1930’s era made a huge contribution to social justice.  Protests, boycotts and movements were strategies used for their voice to be heard.  These same strategies are being used today as they were during the 1930’s.  The strategies’ effectiveness seems to be somewhat the same today as they were then, for people are still fighting for some of the same social injustices that were occurring back then.  For example, racial discrimination, gender discrimination, religion discrimination and others.  Looking back at the 1930’s and looking at where we are today, has led me to believe that we will always be fighting for social justice. However, we must also continue to do as they did back then, continue to fight until our voice is heard and there is a social change.

  

Area	Summary
Social Background	Great Depression, worse economic downturn in history; Unemployment was high; Half of country’s banks closed; Half of African American out of work; 20,000 schools closed; vocational classes and programs closed; Crime rate high; Suicide rate high; Prostitution on the rise; Husbands abandoning families
Highlights	Industrialization production; Vocational education; Homemakers educated on life skills; Education on Social Justice on the rise through protests and movements; Labor movements an strikes on labor justice
Influential factors	New Deal relief and reform plan; Organizations: Civilian Conservation Corps, National Youth Administration, National Negro Women, National Negro Congress, Southern Negro Youth; Folk schools; Labor colleges
Implications	Need for educating and training adults in Trades Industry to meet the future demand through community and adult education. The continuation of protests and movements for social justice one mustn’t quit until your voice is heard and there is a change!

 

References

Carey, B. (2013, February 01). Highlander Folk School. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from https://www.tnmagazine.org/highlander-folk-school

Encyclopedia.com Editors." Historic Events for Students: The Great Depression.  Encyclopedia.com. 11 Aug. 2020. (2020, September 13). Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-and-education-magazines/education-1929-1941

Gordon, H. R. (2014). Factors that Influenced Career and Technical Education Development. In The history and growth of career and technical education in America (pp. 79-81). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

History.com Editors. (2009, October 29). Great Depression History. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/great-depression-history

Klein, C. (2018, April 18). Last Hired, First Fired: How the Great Depression Affected African Americans. Retrieved September 13, 2020, from https://www.history.com/news/last-hired-first-fired-how-the-great-depression-affected-african-americans

Konkel, L. (2018, April 19). Life for the Average Family During the Great Depression. Retrieved September 13, 2020, from https://www.history.com/news/life-for-the-average-family-during-the-great-depression

Lynch, M. (2016, September 02). Comprehending How The Great Depression Influenced American Education. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from https://www.theedadvocate.org/comprehending-great-depression-influenced-american-education/

US History.org. (2020). Social and Cultural Effects of the Depression. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://www.ushistory.org/us/48e.asp

Josie Campbell - History of Adult Education: 1980s

 The History of Adult Education during the 1980s

Josie Campbell

Ball State University 

EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education

Dr. Bo Chang

Name	Commented On
Josie Campbell	Jayne Rohlfing

Introduction 

The 1980s in America were plagued with crime, a crack epidemic and economic issues. Nonetheless, the decade allowed for drastic improvements to adult education with the redevelopment of adult literacy and workforce development programs. Advancements in adult education would not have been possible without the help of technology.  

    The economy in the early 1980s was in a poor state due to two recessions. The first of the two recessions began in January of 1980 and it was “the most significant since the Great Depression” (University of California, 2011). Many individuals were unemployed during the recession. “The American economy experienced a modest recovery beginning in the summer of 1980 but declined again from July 1981 to November 1982” (University of California, 2011). Beginning in 1983, the economy began to recover but many Americans still lived in poverty. 

    The recessions had a large impact on the workforce in America and many companies were forced to close. “Many manufacturing and mining industries never recovered from the two recessions; others recovered their production levels, but did so with fewer workers” (Plunkert, 1990). Once the economy was able to recover, it became evident that workforce development would be needed in order to ensure that workers had the skills necessary to complete their work duties. Technological advancements helped to move workforce development forward. 

    During the recession, “a cheap, highly addictive form of cocaine known as ‘crack’ was first developed” (History.com Editors, 2018). Due to crack’s low cost and easy availability, it became very popular. “In 1985, the number of people who said they used cocaine on a routine basis increased from 4.2 million to 5.8 million” (History.com Editors, 2018). As a result of the increase in crack use, the crime rate increased. “The crack epidemic particularly devastated African American communities --- crime and incarceration rates among this population soared during the 1980s” (History.com Editors, 2018). 

    “Viewed presidentially, the ‘80s were one part Jimmy Carter, eight parts Ronald Reagan and one part George Bush” (Zinsmeister, 1990). President Carter’s presidency ended when President Reagan was inaugurated on January 20, 1981. President Reagan had a profound effect on America in the 1980s and as a result, the decade is referred to as the Reagan era. 

Highlights 

A major issue that emerged during the 1980s was illiteracy. In fact, the concerns were “coming to be seen as a crisis in literacy” (Rose, 1991, p. 25). “In May 1986, according to a government study on literacy, approximately 1 of every 8 Americans could not read.” (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2013, p. 18). Due to the data collected in the 1980s regarding illiteracy, the United Nations declared the year of 1990 as the International Literacy Year (Bhola, 1990). It was determined that despite many adults being employed and graduating from high school, they were not literate (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2013). One of the reasons for the focus on illiteracy was due to a “heightened concern with national productivity and the link between literacy and economic development” (Rose, 1991, p. 25).  There were concerns that the workforce would not function well due to a decrease in unskilled labor.  

Another reason for the focus on literacy was a concern that the needs of immigrants were not being met. Between the years of 1981 and 1990, “some 7.3 million immigrants came to the United States” (Stitch, 2002). However, there were no programs to support services to limited English proficient adults. Yet, many limited English proficient adults were involved in the workforce. 

Once illiteracy began to be addressed, workforce development programs began to be redesigned so that workers would be equipped to fulfill their job duties. “According to national data, the percentage of workers receiving employer-provided training increased steadily from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s” (Lerman, McKernan, and Riegg 2004, 221-23, as cited in Eyster et al., 2016). 

    Many of the changes related to workforce development programs were initiated due to rapid technological advancements. On August 12, 1981, IBM introduced the IBM-PC, which was their version of the personal computer (America’s Best History, 2020). However, IBM’s personal computer sold for $1,565 so most families were most likely not able to purchase the computer. Nonetheless, the easy access of technology began to impact the workforce. “In an effort to compete in a worldwide market, many factories were modernized during the 1980’s, with more and better machines enhancing workers’ output” (Plunkert, 1990). There became a need for workers to be familiar with technology in order to have high productivity rates. In addition, there was an increased need for workers to be able to read instructions in order to complete their job duties. 

Influential Factors 

    There were several public and private literacy initiatives created in order to help end the literary crisis in America. “In 1981 the nongovernmental Coalition for Literacy was established” (Rose, 1991, p. 25). The Coalition for Literacy “emphasized volunteer activities, publicity for literacy issues, response to public inquiries, and fund raising to support these activities” (Rose, 1991, p. 25). 

    In 1983, President Reagan created the Adult Literacy Initiative (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2013). “The purpose of the initiative was to have the U.S. Department of Education conduct a series of national meetings and conferences to increase awareness of adult illiteracy and promote cooperation among adult education programs in eradicating adult illiteracy” (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2013, p. 17). The initiative did not include funding. The Adult Literacy Initiative used volunteers in order to help facilitate their literacy activities in an attempt to decrease costs (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2013). 

    President Reagan signed the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982 in order to address the needs for job-training programs (Fadulu, 2018). President Reagan made the decision to sign the JTPA in response to unemployment.  The JTPA was created after the two recessions and at a time when the unemployment rate was close to 11 percent (Fadulu, 2018). The JTPA “spent nearly $3 billion yearly between 1984 and 1998 and made some adjustments to the previous job-training formula by removing provisions for subsidized jobs in local and state governments and giving more control to the private sector” (Fadulu, 2018).  

    Despite President Reagan’s administration creating the Adult Literacy Initiative, there were concerns about the initiative. There were disclosures to the National Advisory Council on Adult Education (NACAE) about fears that volunteers would not be trained adequately nor supervised (Rose, 1991). In addition, President Reagan’s administration did not increase funding for adult education. Eventually, President Reagan’s administration makes amendments to the Adult Education Act (AEA) in 1984 in an attempt to address issues related to adult illiteracy and increase funding (Rose, 1991). “Thus, the AEA reads that adult education programs will ‘enable all adults to acquire basic literacy skills necessary to function in society’” (U.S. House of Representatives 1987, p. 308 as cited in Rose, 1991, p. 25-26). There was another amendment to the AEA in 1988 that “expanded services to permit partnerships with businesses, labor unions, and educators to provide workplace literacy programs for employees with limited basic skills (U.S. Department of Education, 1991; Rose, 1991, as cited in Stitch, 2002).

    The literacy crisis was worldwide crisis that did not just effect Americans. Discussions began about literacy being a human right and an aid to development. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, adult educators and philosophers, wrote a book in 1987 titled the Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Bhola, 1990). Freire gave the world the theme “literacy for liberation.” (Bhola, 1990). In the book, Freire and Macedo state the following: 

“We call for a view of literacy as a form of cultural politics. In our analysis, literacy becomes a meaningful construct to the degree that it is viewed as a set of practices that functions to either            empower or disempower people” (Bhola, 1990).

Implications

Adult education in the 1980s evolved into ensuring that adults not only had basic skills and were literate but it also became a political issue. The large number of illiterate adults forced not only governmental action but also action in the private sector. An important discussion about oppression began and it became necessary for there to be advocates for oppressed adults. These advocates were very valuable for the vast number of immigrants in America at the time. 

The two recessions early in the decade resulted in a sharp decline in the manufacturing industry. Yet, there was an increase in the service industry (Plunkert, 1990). This meant that unskilled laborers had to learn skills that they had no familiarity with previously. It became necessary to create workforce development programs for these individuals. 

The crack epidemic only worsened as the decade went on and the number of crack users was consistently increasing. Therefore, it can only be assumed that the labor pool was low, which could have resulted in decreased productivity nationwide. As a result, it was very important that the laborers that were available to work were well equipped. 

Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education

Areas	Summary
Social Background	Two recessions, a crack epidemic, unemployment, industry shifts
Highlights	Literacy crisis, technological advancements at home and in the workforce, influx of immigrants, workforce development
Influential Factors	Amendments to the Adult Education Act (AEA) in 1984 and 1988, the Coalition for Literacy, the Adult Literacy Initiative, Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982, Pablo Freire and Donaldo Macedo's Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Implications	Adult education became a political issue and there became a need to speak for the previously oppressed

References

America’s Best History. (2020). U.S. Timeline – The 1980s. America’s Best History.            https://americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1980.html

Bhola, H. S. (1990). Literature on adult literacy: New directions in the 1980s. Comparative Education        Review, 34(1), 139-144. doi:10.1086/446907

Eyster, L., Durham, C., Van Noy., M., Damron, N. (2016, March 15). Understanding local workforce    systems. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/understanding-local-workforce-   systems

Fadulu, L. (2018, January 4). Why is the U.S. so bad at worker retraining? The Atlantic.    https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/01/why-is-the-us-so-bad-at-protecting-workers-   from-automation/549185/

History.com Editors. (2017, May 31). Just Say No. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/1980s/just-say-no

Plunkert, L. M. (1990). The 1980’s: A decade of job growth and industry shifts. Monthly Labor Review.    https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1990/09/Art1full.pdf

Rose, A. D. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the adult education act (346). ERIC.    http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.627.914&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Sticht, T. (2002). The Rise of the Adult Education and Literacy System in the United States: 1600-2000.    The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3(2). Retrieved from    http://ncsall.net/index.html@id=569.html

University of California. (2011). The 1980-82 early 1980s recession. University of California.     https://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/projects/debt/1980srecession.html

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education. (2013). An American heritage   —federal adult education: A legislative history 1964-2013. Retrieved from    https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf

Zinsmeister, K. (1990). America during the '80s: Summing up the reagan era. The Wilson Quarterly    (Washington), 14(1), 110-117.

Ashten Lail: History of Adult Education, 2000 - 2020

 

Name	Commented On
Ashten Lail	Jayne Rohlfing

Adult and community based education has existed and impacted our societal growth and development from the days of agrarian societies to today’s fast paced, digitally based global economy. The ringing in of the new millennia in 2000, and the years to come, have brought on some of the most exponential technological advances that have radically changed the ideas and methods of delivery for adult and community based education; it has opened new avenues that did not exist thirty years ago, and brought about opportunities for education that had never been conceived. The social backdrop of the 2000’s has been molded by an increasing emphasis on civil rights discourse, financial impacts from economic recessions, and our assimilation into a digital age. Many adults face unprecedented challenges of high healthcare costs, low wages, and increasing student loan debts, which can be barriers for growth and education. Several cultural events and groups have called attention to the need for more accessibility to resources for marginalized communities, and accountability of those who hold leadership positions. In addition, the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has also brought about a unique set of challenges and circumstances that individuals and educators must navigate. This paper will describe changes within the realm of adult and community education, review influential factors in modern adult and community education, and will provide a critical reflection of the future of education as our world grapples with new challenges and revelations. While it is important to understand where we come from, and how we have arrived here, it is also important to analyze where we are now, and what growth the future may hold.

Depending on one’s generational positioning, different viewpoints exist regarding the current digital age and the pervasiveness of technology. Members of younger generations likely cannot recall a time in their lives without Internet access; while others may distinctly recall the transitions from car phones and pagers, to smart phones and tablets. Regardless of one’s age, technology has become interwoven with lives in ways that we cannot imagine (van Deursen et al., 2019). Doctors can visit with their patients via Telehealth avenues; individuals interested in subject matters can Google keywords and be provided with videos, books, websites, and a plethora of other sources of information on the subject. Accessibility of information online has also led to an entirely new avenue of educational opportunities; universities offer online school programs; local organizations offer community education programs online; and social media platforms and podcasts offer informal education through the exchange of dialogue. These avenues for education did not exist several decades ago, and adult and community education programs have had to keep pace with these changes to continually offer new, relevant, needs-based educational opportunities. 

With such a shift towards online and digital education, it is important to note that while accessibility has improved for some, it may have become more exclusionary for others. The exponential growth of technology has left several groups in the dust; notably, it has left behind older adults who are now being forced to learn a new system that can be outside of their comfort zones. A recent study conducted by van Deursen et al. (2019) examines how generational attitudes about technology, material access, skills, and usage vary and impact one’s overall accessibility. The subject of material access also has to be considered within the field of adult and community education; individuals from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds may not have the financial capital to obtain the devices and Internet access that is almost necessary to be able to participate in online learning. The unequal access to resources can also threaten to widen the already large gap between different groups of people; as stated by van Deursen, et al. (2019) “Recent studies suggest that differences in these types of access reinforce existing inequalities, as human capital carries over to the online world.” The field of adult and community education will have to contend with the possibility of a widening gap between peoples of different socioeconomic backgrounds, and will have to take on the task of ensuring equitable accessibility to resources (Helsper & van Deursen, 2015). 

Throughout the course of the last two decades, there have been several influential factors on the growth and direction of the field of adult and community education. When speaking with members of Congress in 2008, former President Barack Obama established two goals for the next twelve years of American education; the President sought to have the highest proportion of postsecondary-educated adults in the world, and for all citizens to seek out advanced education opportunities through universities, trade schools, or other postsecondary opportunities (An American Heritage—Federal Adult Education: A Legislative History 1964-2013, 2013). As a means to support the inaction of this goal, the Federal Perkins Act was established to offer financial aid and support to adults who seek out postsecondary education; individuals could apply for loans to help offset the cost of schooling. This program was developed with the idea that investing in the education of citizens will yield a more skilled and competent workforce, which will strengthen local, national, and global economies.

In addition to President Obama’s goals for adult education, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) developed a study intended to survey the skills and competencies of adults, that would provide a benchmark for these competencies that could then be utilized to develop educational programs tailored to meet the needs of different communities and demographics. This survey, or the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) has been conducted on three separate occasions, originally occurring in 2012 and being repeated in the years 2014 and 2017 with increasingly broad scopes. This program surveyed adults ages 16 to 74, and assessed for competencies in three separate categories; literacy, numeracy, and problem solving. This survey has been administered in 38 countries, and in the United States, data from this survey can be broken down to the state and county levels for a more refined look at adult skills and competencies (Program for the International Assessment for Adult Competencies (PIAAC) – What is PIAAC?). This study is significant for the modern perspective of adult and community education, as it provides a clear starting point for future educational journeys. By utilizing results from this survey, local educational programs can develop tools and resources that can build upon the strengths and areas for opportunities within communities. 

The onset of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in the spring of 2020 has also significantly impacted the world, including the world of education. School systems made the decision to switch to virtual learning while under the threat of the virus, and while many schools and programs have returned to a face-to-face setting, many have continued to offer virtual learning as an option, which may have been considered to be impossible prior to the pandemic. The discourse surrounding the decision to have students, regardless of age, return to in-person learning has brought up several significant points that should be taken into consideration. Referencing an earlier point, material accessibility should be considered with regards to education; individuals may not have reliable access to technology or Internet access. Different individuals also benefit from different instructional or learning styles that may be hard to accommodate strictly in an online setting, which can then negatively impact their educational growth. It should also be noted, that while the field of adult and community education is appropriately focused on adults, the impact of the COVID -19 pandemic on traditional K-12 schooling will likely lead to future deficits in adult knowledge and competencies (Boeren et al., 2020).

The 2000’s have been a time period of unprecedented growth and development for individuals and institutions to grapple with. It has been a time of tension, with an ever growing emphasis on social progress and equitability. Educational opportunities exist in forms that had never been considered before, and almost as quickly as society becomes accustomed to one standard of technology, another is brought forward through innovation. This constant advancement and improvement means that education can be delivered in new and exciting formats such as interactive online modules, or virtual reality teachings. The field of adult and community education is faced with a familiar challenge in a different context; while accessibility and equal access to opportunities is certainly not a new subject, the prospect of ensuring access in a digital age, or during a pandemic, has not been addressed before. It is also imperative that educators keep an eye on the horizon for changes in a community or individual’s needs; this transition into a technology-reliant society may leave some behind, and there may be gaps in knowledge for future adults as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. When seeking out future opportunities for adult and community education programs, it is important to understand that while these investments and sacrifices may not yield immediate change, they will lead to a better society for those who come after us. 

Areas	Summary
Social Background	Focus on time frame of 2000 – 2020.  Onset of modern civil rights movement. Economic recessions & financial hardships.  Shift into the ‘Digital Age.’
Highlights	Increasing pervasiveness of technology. Disparities in accessibility of knowledge. Increased options for delivery.
Influential Factors	President Obama’s goals for adult education.  PIAAC Survey conducted.  COVID Pandemic.
Implications	Ensuring equitable access to education.  Impact of COVID on education of future adults.  Transient and evolving technologies.

Table 1: Summary of Adult & Community Education, 2000 – 2020.

References

Boeren, E., Roumell, E. A., & Roessger, K. M. (2020, May 5). COVID-19 and the Future of Adult Education: An Editorial – Ellen Boeren, Elizabeth A. Roumell, Kevin M. Roessger, 2020. SAGE Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0741713620925029. 

Helsper, E. J., & van Deursen, A. J. A. M. (2015, November 17). Do the rich get digitally richer? Quantity and quality of support for digital engagement. Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1203454?src=recsys. 

Program for the International Assessment for Adult Competencies (PIAAC) – What is PIAAC? National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, a part of the U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/. 

Rasi, P., Vuojarvi, H., & Rivinen, S. (2020, May 25). Promoting Media Literacy Among Older People: A Systematic Review – Päivi Rasi, Hanna Vuojärvi, Susanna Rivinen, 2020. SAGE Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0741713620923755. 

Reneland-Forsman, L. (2018, May 31). ‘Borrowed access’ – the struggle of older persons for digital participation. Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02601370.2018.1473516. 

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, An American Heritage—Federal Adult Education: A Legislative History 1964-2013, Washington, DC, 2013.

van der Meij, M. G., Kupper, F., Beers, P. J., & Broerse, J. E. W. (2016, July 15). Hybrid e-learning tool TransLearning: video storytelling to foster vicarious learning within multi-stakeholder collaboration networks. Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02601370.2016.1197331. 

van Deursen, A. J. A. M., van der Zeeuw, A., de Boer, P., Jansen, G., & van Rompay, T. (2019, July 27). Digital inequalities in the Internet of Things: differences in attitudes, material access, skills, and usage. Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1646777?utm_source=TrendMD. 

Claire Aldenhuysen - History of Adult Education, 1990s

    The demand for adult learning increased in the 1990s due to a market shift from a manufacturing economy to a service- and information-based economy (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). The 1990s also saw a growth in globalization due to the liberalization of trade laws, resulting in individuals not only having to compete for jobs with other candidates locally, but worldwide (Bills, 2000). Additionally, the 1990s was a time of technological advancement. Though the internet had its origins in the early 1970s (Dennis & Kahn, 2020), it wasn’t until the early 1990s that widespread use of the World Wide Web became commonplace.

    The internet introduced the world to a completely new way of communicating, working, and learning. All of these factors combined resulted in a shift in importance from “natural resources and physical capital to human resources and human capital - that is, to the skills and abilities of the population” (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). Furthermore, the 1990s saw the Baby Boomer generation reach middle age, resulting in a large workforce composed of individuals who were better educated than the generation before them and more open to lifelong learning opportunities (Valentine, 1997).

    Lastly, the 1990s saw an increase in opportunity for and benefits from continued adult education. Not only was there a marked economic return on obtaining higher education degrees (U.S. Department of Education, 2000), but the number of businesses providing on-the-job training opportunities increased (National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, 1995). 

The decade of the 1990’s also saw an increased effort to improve adult literacy. The US Congress, US Department of Education, and adult education leaders saw a need to combine adult literacy programs with other forms of adult education (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). In September 1989, President George H. W. Bush and the 50 state governors convened at an Education Summit with the intention of setting educational goals for the nation (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The National Goals were announced five months later in February 1990, including, for the first time, adult education: “By the year 2000, every adult in America will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship” (National Education Goals Panel, 1999). The 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey was developed to satisfy the requirements set by the Adult Education Amendments of 1988. This survey was designed to assess the literacy skills of adults 16 years and older. The survey revealed a shocking 47% of the 13,600 adults surveyed scored at or below levels needed to function at a minimum standard of proficiency (Jenkins, L., & Baldi, S., 1999).   

The U.S. government continued to pursue a greater level of adult literacy for the American people. The National Literacy Act (P.L. 102-73) was signed by President George H.W. Bush on July 25, 1991. Its purpose was to “enhance the literacy and basic skills of adults, to ensure that all adults in the United States acquire the basic skills necessary to function effectively and achieve the greatest possible opportunity in their work and in their lives, and to strengthen and coordinate adult literacy programs” (National Literacy Act of 1991). The National Literacy Act called for the development of the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL), which would be charged with “maintaining a national clearinghouse for literacy, providing technical assistance and training to adult education providers, fostering research-based activities that would identify and validate effective instructional practices, and disseminating information regarding those practices” (National Literacy Act, §102, §384, 1991).

Furthermore, the National Literacy Act provided grants to states to improve their capacity of literacy and service providers through either the improvement or establishment of State Literacy Resource Centers (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). These literacy and service providers would have the responsibility to serve adults with less than a high school education in their communities. In addition to literacy programs, the National Literacy Act provided funding for National Workforce Demonstration Programs for the first time (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The funding for this program were designated to support “effective partnerships between education organization, business and industry, labor organizations, and private industry councils” and were intended to serve adults who sought improvement not only in literacy, but also adult basic skills, ESL programs, ABE preparation, and general support services, such as childcare and transportation (National Literacy Act, §202, §371, 1991). The Act also required states to allot 10% of their state funding specifically for corrections education, which would be utilized in programming designed to assist incarcerated individuals in basic literacy skills, ABE preparation, and transition into the community upon release (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

All of the initiatives in the National Literacy Act were designed to improve adult educational opportunities throughout the United States. These programs were intended to not only resolve the issue of widespread illiteracy among adults, but to educate a workforce that sorely needed the professional development that was otherwise inaccessible or unavailable to them.  

In order to better understand the motivation behind adult education activities in the 1990s, the National Center for Education Statistics conducted three Adult Education surveys through the National Household Education Surveys (NHES) Program (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). These surveys, conducted in 1991, 1995, and 1999, asked participants about six types of formal learning activities. The activities included: English as a Second Language (ESL), Adult Basic Education (GED classes), credential programs, apprenticeship programs, job- or career-related courses, and personal development courses. Respondents were asked to provide one main reason for their participation in the aforementioned activities, which were then coded into two categories: work-related (to improve, advance, or keep up to date on current job or train for a new job or career) and nonwork related (to improve basic literacy, math, or writing skills, or for a personal reason). 

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) found that the percentage of surveyed adults participating in adult education increased from 33% to 46% from 1991 to 1999 (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). The NCES also collected data on participation based on sex, ethnicity, education level, labor force status, and occupation group of the participants, finding that both men and women participated in adult educational activities at a rate of 33% in 1991, but the end of the decade saw participation by women increase to 48% (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). 

For the purposes of these surveys, the NCES defined race in the following manner: non-Hispanic Blacks, non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, and All Other Race/Ethnic Groups. It was found that in 1991, 26% of non-Hispanic Blacks participated in adult educational activities, compared to 34% of non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, and All Other Race/Ethnic Groups. From  1991 to 1999, participation in adult education increased among non-Hispanic Whites (34 to 46 percent), non-Hispanic Blacks (26% to 48%), Hispanics (32% to 43%), and for the category comprising all other race/ethnic groups (34% to 51%).

The three NHES studies found a positive relationship between education level and participation in adult education, supporting evidence found in previous, similar studies (Kim et al., 1995; Valentine, 1997, as cited in Creighton & Hudson, 2002). For those with less than a high school diploma, participation rates increased from 13% to 22% over the course of the decade; from 24% to 36% for those with a high school diploma, from 42% to 54% for those with some college education, and from 54% to 64% for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher (Creighton & Hudson, 2002).  

The researchers also discovered a significantly higher participation rate in adult educational programs by those employed full time (45%) at the beginning of the decade. By comparison, part time workers (34%), the unemployed (27%), retirees (9%), and those otherwise not in the labor force (22%) were all participating at a much lower rate. However, by 1999, the rates increased for each category anywhere from 9% to 22% (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). 

Lastly, the researchers found an initially higher percentage of those in professional and managerial jobs (65%) participating in adult education, followed by those in sales, service, and support positions (36%), and finally those in trade occupations (29%). From 1991 to 1999, those in professional and managerial jobs saw only a small increase of 1%, but the other two categories saw a much more significant increase in participation (50% for sales, service, and support and 38% for those in trade occupations). 

This data shows that during the 1990s, there was significant growth and an overall increase in participation in adult education for every almost category surveyed. This was most likely due to the proliferation of options available to adult learners, including formal educational programs, ESL courses, ABE preparation, apprentice programs, and more.

Unfortunately, the trio of surveys conducted by the NCES were not identical throughout the decade, with the 1991 survey instrument neglecting to allow comparisons for the patterns of participation in specific types of adult education activities (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). However, the NCES was able to collect and compare data for 1995 and 1999 regarding participation patterns and trends amongst those surveyed.

   The NCES surveys for 1995 and 1999 found that the most popular adult education activities were work-related courses and nonwork-related courses (20%), followed by credential programs (10%), and lastly by the three remaining categories of ESL, ABE, and apprenticeship programs (1-2%) (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). According to Creighton and Hudson (2002), the low participation rate for the latter three categories was due to the fact that these types of educational opportunities are targeted to a more restricted group of adults than other forms of adult education.  

Over the course of the latter half of the decade, participation in all adult education activities increased from 42% to 46%, reflecting growth in most types of adult education, except for ESL programs and work-related courses (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). Creighton and Hudson (2002) posit that there are at least two reasons ESL programs did not see an increase in participation rates. First is due to the limited time period surveyed; four years may not be enough time to see the formation of a trend. Secondly, the NHES Adult Education Surveys were only conducted in Spanish and English, thereby excluding any adults who did not speak either language from participating.    

    The data collected in regard to participation in work-related and nonwork-related courses found that participation rates for work-related courses were the highest among middle-aged adults, while nonwork-related courses were generally constant except for the oldest group of adults (Creighton & Hudson, 2002). Participation rates were found in increase with both education level and occupational status for both categories, supporting evidence found by other studies that “employers are more likely to provide training to better educated and professional workers than to other workers” (Creighton & Hudson, 2002; Lynch and Black, 1996; Training Magazine, 1997; Frazis et al, 1998). 

The 1990s was a decade of change. Not only was globalization the rise, but the advent of new technologies, like the Internet, necessitated the development of new adult educational opportunities. Not only that, but demand for adult education increased among workers across the board, from individuals in professional roles to those holding trade occupations. People saw the need for improving their on-the-job skills, whether it was to compete in a global market, to make themselves more marketable for internal promotions, or to fulfill personal aspirations. Fortunately, the U.S. government saw this desire for self improvement and acted upon it, passing legislation to enable workers to access adult education resources more easily than ever before. Research conducted over the following decade showed that individuals maintained their interest in professional development as more and more opportunities presented themselves. 

Area	Summary
Social Background	globalization, World Wide Web, Baby Boomers, emphasis on human capital vs. natural resources, widespread illiteracy among adults, desire for self improvement (professional, academic, and personal)
Highlights	new opportunities for adult education, distance learning, upward mobility, establishment of State Literacy Resource Centers
Influential Factors	Education Summit (1989), National Goals (1990), 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey, National Household Education Surveys Program, The National Literacy Act (P.L. 102-73), National Workforce Demonstration Programs, funding for corrections education
Implications	Preparation for globalization, self-improvement, upward mobility, mastery of new skills (particularly in technology), government support of nonformal and formal adult education

Table 1: Summary of Adult Education in America (1990 – 1999)

References: 

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